In this practice, the student will implement a four-bit counter using the 74LS193 Integrated circuit (IC), and the NE555 IC as clock signal.
\begin
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%% bare_jrnl.tex
%% V1.4a
%% 2014/09/17
%% by Michael Shell
%% see http://www.michaelshell.org/
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% *** Authors should verify (and, if needed, correct) their LaTeX system ***
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% *** trigger bugs that do not appear when using other class files. *** ***
% The testflow support page is at:
% http://www.michaelshell.org/tex/testflow/
\documentclass[journal]{IEEEtran}
\usepackage[spanish]{babel}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage{enumerate}
\usepackage{graphicx}
%
% If IEEEtran.cls has not been installed into the LaTeX system files,
% manually specify the path to it like:
% \documentclass[journal]{../sty/IEEEtran}
% Some very useful LaTeX packages include:
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% *** MISC UTILITY PACKAGES ***
%
%\usepackage{ifpdf}
% Heiko Oberdiek's ifpdf.sty is very useful if you need conditional
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% usage:
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% % pdf code
% \else
% % dvi code
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% *** CITATION PACKAGES ***
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% cite.sty will become [1], [2], [5]--[7], [9] using cite.sty. cite.sty's
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% \usepackage[pdftex]{graphicx}
% declare the path(s) where your graphic files are
% \graphicspath{{../pdf/}{../jpeg/}}
% and their extensions so you won't have to specify these with
% every instance of \includegraphics
% \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.pdf,.jpeg,.png}
\else
% or other class option (dvipsone, dvipdf, if not using dvips). graphicx
% will default to the driver specified in the system graphics.cfg if no
% driver is specified.
% \usepackage[dvips]{graphicx}
% declare the path(s) where your graphic files are
% \graphicspath{{../eps/}}
% and their extensions so you won't have to specify these with
% every instance of \includegraphics
% \DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.eps}
\fi
% graphicx was written by David Carlisle and Sebastian Rahtz. It is
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% that all non-photo figures use a vector format (.eps, .pdf, .mps) and
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% which can result in "jaggedy"/blurry rendering of lines and letters as
% well as large increases in file sizes.
%
% You can find documentation about the pdfTeX application at:
% http://www.tug.org/applications/pdftex
% *** MATH PACKAGES ***
%
%\usepackage[cmex10]{amsmath}
% A popular package from the American Mathematical Society that provides
% many useful and powerful commands for dealing with mathematics. If using
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% only type 1 fonts will utilized at all point sizes. Without this option,
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%
% Also, note that the amsmath package sets \interdisplaylinepenalty to 10000
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%\interdisplaylinepenalty=2500
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% *** SPECIALIZED LIST PACKAGES ***
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%\usepackage{algorithmic}
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% You can use the algorithmic environment in-text or within a figure
% environment to provide for a floating algorithm. Do NOT use the algorithm
% floating environment provided by algorithm.sty (by the same authors) or
% algorithm2e.sty (by Christophe Fiorio) as IEEE does not use dedicated
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% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/algorithms/
% There is also a support site at:
% http://algorithms.berlios.de/index.html
% Also of interest may be the (relatively newer and more customizable)
% algorithmicx.sty package by Szasz Janos:
% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/algorithmicx/
% *** ALIGNMENT PACKAGES ***
%
%\usepackage{array}
% Frank Mittelbach's and David Carlisle's array.sty patches and improves
% the standard LaTeX2e array and tabular environments to provide better
% appearance and additional user controls. As the default LaTeX2e table
% generation code is lacking to the point of almost being broken with
% respect to the quality of the end results, all users are strongly
% advised to use an enhanced (at the very least that provided by array.sty)
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% latest version and documentation can be obtained at:
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% IEEEtran contains the IEEEeqnarray family of commands that can be used to
% generate multiline equations as well as matrices, tables, etc., of high
% quality.
% *** SUBFIGURE PACKAGES ***
%\ifCLASSOPTIONcompsoc
% \usepackage[caption=false,font=normalsize,labelfont=sf,textfont=sf]{subfig}
%\else
% \usepackage[caption=false,font=footnotesize]{subfig}
%\fi
% subfig.sty, written by Steven Douglas Cochran, is the modern replacement
% for subfigure.sty, the latter of which is no longer maintained and is
% incompatible with some LaTeX packages including fixltx2e. However,
% subfig.sty requires and automatically loads Axel Sommerfeldt's caption.sty
% which will override IEEEtran.cls' handling of captions and this will result
% in non-IEEE style figure/table captions. To prevent this problem, be sure
% and invoke subfig.sty's "caption=false" package option (available since
% subfig.sty version 1.3, 2005/06/28) as this is will preserve IEEEtran.cls
% handling of captions.
% Note that the Computer Society format requires a larger sans serif font
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%
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% *** FLOAT PACKAGES ***
%
%\usepackage{fixltx2e}
% fixltx2e, the successor to the earlier fix2col.sty, was written by
% Frank Mittelbach and David Carlisle. This package corrects a few problems
% in the LaTeX2e kernel, the most notable of which is that in current
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% single column figure to be placed prior to an earlier double column
% figure. The latest version and documentation can be found at:
% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/base/
%\usepackage{stfloats}
% stfloats.sty was written by Sigitas Tolusis. This package gives LaTeX2e
% the ability to do double column floats at the bottom of the page as well
% as the top. (e.g., "\begin{figure*}[!b]" is not normally possible in
% LaTeX2e). It also provides a command:
%\fnbelowfloat
% to enable the placement of footnotes below bottom floats (the standard
% LaTeX2e kernel puts them above bottom floats). This is an invasive package
% which rewrites many portions of the LaTeX2e float routines. It may not work
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% Do not use the stfloats baselinefloat ability as IEEE does not allow
% \baselineskip to stretch. Authors submitting work to the IEEE should note
% that IEEE rarely uses double column equations and that authors should try
% to avoid such use. Do not be tempted to use the cuted.sty or midfloat.sty
% packages (also by Sigitas Tolusis) as IEEE does not format its papers in
% such ways.
% Do not attempt to use stfloats with fixltx2e as they are incompatible.
% Instead, use Morten Hogholm'a dblfloatfix which combines the features
% of both fixltx2e and stfloats:
%
% \usepackage{dblfloatfix}
% The latest version can be found at:
% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/dblfloatfix/
%\ifCLASSOPTIONcaptionsoff
% \usepackage[nomarkers]{endfloat}
% \let\MYoriglatexcaption\caption
% \renewcommand{\caption}[2][\relax]{\MYoriglatexcaption[#2]{#2}}
%\fi
% endfloat.sty was written by James Darrell McCauley, Jeff Goldberg and
% Axel Sommerfeldt. This package may be useful when used in conjunction with
% IEEEtran.cls' captionsoff option. Some IEEE journals/societies require that
% submissions have lists of figures/tables at the end of the paper and that
% figures/tables without any captions are placed on a page by themselves at
% the end of the document. If needed, the draftcls IEEEtran class option or
% \CLASSINPUTbaselinestretch interface can be used to increase the line
% spacing as well. Be sure and use the nomarkers option of endfloat to
% prevent endfloat from "marking" where the figures would have been placed
% in the text. The two hack lines of code above are a slight modification of
% that suggested by in the endfloat docs (section 8.4.1) to ensure that
% the full captions always appear in the list of figures/tables - even if
% the user used the short optional argument of \caption[]{}.
% IEEE papers do not typically make use of \caption[]'s optional argument,
% so this should not be an issue. A similar trick can be used to disable
% captions of packages such as subfig.sty that lack options to turn off
% the subcaptions:
% For subfig.sty:
% \let\MYorigsubfloat\subfloat
% \renewcommand{\subfloat}[2][\relax]{\MYorigsubfloat[]{#2}}
% However, the above trick will not work if both optional arguments of
% the \subfloat command are used. Furthermore, there needs to be a
% description of each subfigure *somewhere* and endfloat does not add
% subfigure captions to its list of figures. Thus, the best approach is to
% avoid the use of subfigure captions (many IEEE journals avoid them anyway)
% and instead reference/explain all the subfigures within the main caption.
% The latest version of endfloat.sty and its documentation can obtained at:
% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/endfloat/
%
% The IEEEtran \ifCLASSOPTIONcaptionsoff conditional can also be used
% later in the document, say, to conditionally put the References on a
% page by themselves.
% *** PDF, URL AND HYPERLINK PACKAGES ***
%
%\usepackage{url}
% url.sty was written by Donald Arseneau. It provides better support for
% handling and breaking URLs. url.sty is already installed on most LaTeX
% systems. The latest version and documentation can be obtained at:
% http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/url/
% Basically, \url{my_url_here}.
% *** Do not adjust lengths that control margins, column widths, etc. ***
% *** Do not use packages that alter fonts (such as pslatex). ***
% There should be no need to do such things with IEEEtran.cls V1.6 and later.
% (Unless specifically asked to do so by the journal or conference you plan
% to submit to, of course. )
% correct bad hyphenation here
\hyphenation{op-tical net-works semi-conduc-tor}
\begin{document}
%
% paper title
% Titles are generally capitalized except for words such as a, an, and, as,
% at, but, by, for, in, nor, of, on, or, the, to and up, which are usually
% not capitalized unless they are the first or last word of the title.
% Linebreaks \\ can be used within to get better formatting as desired.
% Do not put math or special symbols in the title.
\title{PRÁCTICA 1: CONTADOR BINARIO DE 4 BITS}
%
%
% author names and IEEE memberships
% note positions of commas and nonbreaking spaces ( ~ ) LaTeX will not break
% a structure at a ~ so this keeps an author's name from being broken across
% two lines.
% use \thanks{} to gain access to the first footnote area
% a separate \thanks must be used for each paragraph as LaTeX2e's \thanks
% was not built to handle multiple paragraphs
%
\author{Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica y Computación \\
Universidad Nacional De Colombia - Sede Manizales\\
Docente: Jaime Enrique Arango\\
Monitor: Carlos Andres Serna Anduquia\\
Integrantes: Laura Natalia Arias Castaño,~\IEEEmembership{ 211003}\\
Eliana Mrcela Diaz Amaya,~\IEEEmembership{214566}\\
Carlos Arturo Zamora Urueña,~\IEEEmembership{806556}% <-this % stops a space
\thanks{}% <-this % stops a space
\thanks{}% <-this % stops a space
\thanks{}}
% note the % following the last \IEEEmembership and also \thanks -
% these prevent an unwanted space from occurring between the last author name
% and the end of the author line. i.e., if you had this:
%
% \author{....lastname \thanks{...} \thanks{...} }
% ^------------^------------^----Do not want these spaces!
%
% a space would be appended to the last name and could cause every name on that
% line to be shifted left slightly. This is one of those "LaTeX things". For
% instance, "\textbf{A} \textbf{B}" will typeset as "A B" not "AB". To get
% "AB" then you have to do: "\textbf{A}\textbf{B}"
% \thanks is no different in this regard, so shield the last } of each \thanks
% that ends a line with a % and do not let a space in before the next \thanks.
% Spaces after \IEEEmembership other than the last one are OK (and needed) as
% you are supposed to have spaces between the names. For what it is worth,
% this is a minor point as most people would not even notice if the said evil
% space somehow managed to creep in.
% The paper headers
\markboth{Journal of \LaTeX\ Class Files,~Vol.~13, No.~9, September~2014}%
{Shell \MakeLowercase{\textit{et al.}}: Bare Demo of IEEEtran.cls for Journals}
% The only time the second header will appear is for the odd numbered pages
% after the title page when using the twoside option.
%
% *** Note that you probably will NOT want to include the author's ***
% *** name in the headers of peer review papers. ***
% You can use \ifCLASSOPTIONpeerreview for conditional compilation here if
% you desire.
% If you want to put a publisher's ID mark on the page you can do it like
% this:
%\IEEEpubid{0000--0000/00\$00.00~\copyright~2014 IEEE}
% Remember, if you use this you must call \IEEEpubidadjcol in the second
% column for its text to clear the IEEEpubid mark.
% use for special paper notices
%\IEEEspecialpapernotice{(Invited Paper)}
% make the title area
\maketitle
% As a general rule, do not put math, special symbols or citations
% in the abstract or keywords.
\begin{abstract}
—In this practice, the student will implement a
four-bit counter using the 74LS193 Integrated circuit (IC),
and the NE555 IC as clock signal.
\end{abstract}
% Note that keywords are not normally used for peerreview papers.
\begin{IEEEkeywords}
Senal de reloj, Contador, Carry, Borrow, Ascendente, Descentente.
\end{IEEEkeywords}
% For peer review papers, you can put extra information on the cover
% page as needed:
% \ifCLASSOPTIONpeerreview
% \begin{center} \bfseries EDICS Category: 3-BBND \end{center}
% \fi
%
% For peerreview papers, this IEEEtran command inserts a page break and
% creates the second title. It will be ignored for other modes.
\IEEEpeerreviewmaketitle
\section{INTRODUCCIÓN}
% The very first letter is a 2 line initial drop letter followed
% by the rest of the first word in caps.
%
% form to use if the first word consists of a single letter:
% \IEEEPARstart{A}{demo} file is ....
%
% form to use if you need the single drop letter followed by
% normal text (unknown if ever used by IEEE):
% \IEEEPARstart{A}{}demo file is ....
%
% Some journals put the first two words in caps:
% \IEEEPARstart{T}{his demo} file is ....
%
% Here we have the typical use of a "T" for an initial drop letter
% and "HIS" in caps to complete the first word.
\IEEEPARstart {S}in duda, los contadores son los bloques digitales más utilizados, están presentes en la mayor parte de los sistemas digitales, y cuentan con un gran número de aplicaciones.\\\\
En primer lugar, el conteo de unidades que, además de la información sobre número de objetos, personas o sucesos, permite el control de dichas variables; por ejemplo controlar el número de objetos a insertar en un envase, el número máximo de personas presentes en un recinto, etc.\\\\
La cuenta directa de unidades (pulsos, objetos, sucesos) encuentra aplicación en muchos procesos, por ejemplo un sencillo control de número de unidades: una cinta transportadora mueve pequeños objetos de uno en uno; al final de ella, un operario coloca una caja de embalaje, al presionar un pedal, deben caer 100 objetos en la caja.\\\\
En esta práctica se muestra el funcionamiento básico de los contadores, tomando como patrón un contador binario de 4 bits.
% You must have at least 2 lines in the paragraph with the drop letter
% (should never be an issue)
\hfill
% needed in second column of first page if using \IEEEpubid
%\IEEEpubidadjcol
% An example of a floating figure using the graphicx package.
% Note that \label must occur AFTER (or within) \caption.
% For figures, \caption should occur after the \includegraphics.
% Note that IEEEtran v1.7 and later has special internal code that
% is designed to preserve the operation of \label within \caption
% even when the captionsoff option is in effect. However, because
% of issues like this, it may be the safest practice to put all your
% \label just after \caption rather than within \caption{}.
%
% Reminder: the "draftcls" or "draftclsnofoot", not "draft", class
% option should be used if it is desired that the figures are to be
% displayed while in draft mode.
%
%\begin{figure}[!t]
%\centering
%\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{myfigure}
% where an .eps filename suffix will be assumed under latex,
% and a .pdf suffix will be assumed for pdflatex; or what has been declared
% via \DeclareGraphicsExtensions.
%\caption{Simulation results for the network.}
%\label{fig_sim}
%\end{figure}
% Note that IEEE typically puts floats only at the top, even when this
% results in a large percentage of a column being occupied by floats.
% An example of a double column floating figure using two subfigures.
% (The subfig.sty package must be loaded for this to work.)
% The subfigure \label commands are set within each subfloat command,
% and the \label for the overall figure must come after \caption.
% \hfil is used as a separator to get equal spacing.
% Watch out that the combined width of all the subfigures on a
% line do not exceed the text width or a line break will occur.
%
%\begin{figure*}[!t]
%\centering
%\subfloat[Case I]{\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{box}%
%\label{fig_first_case}}
%\hfil
%\subfloat[Case II]{\includegraphics[width=2.5in]{box}%
%\label{fig_second_case}}
%\caption{Simulation results for the network.}
%\label{fig_sim}
%\end{figure*}
%
% Note that often IEEE papers with subfigures do not employ subfigure
% captions (using the optional argument to \subfloat[]), but instead will
% reference/describe all of them (a), (b), etc., within the main caption.
% Be aware that for subfig.sty to generate the (a), (b), etc., subfigure
% labels, the optional argument to \subfloat must be present. If a
% subcaption is not desired, just leave its contents blank,
% e.g., \subfloat[].
% An example of a floating table. Note that, for IEEE style tables, the
% \caption command should come BEFORE the table and, given that table
% captions serve much like titles, are usually capitalized except for words
% such as a, an, and, as, at, but, by, for, in, nor, of, on, or, the, to
% and up, which are usually not capitalized unless they are the first or
% last word of the caption. Table text will default to \footnotesize as
% IEEE normally uses this smaller font for tables.
% The \label must come after \caption as always.
%
%\begin{table}[!t]
%% increase table row spacing, adjust to taste
%\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
% if using array.sty, it might be a good idea to tweak the value of
% \extrarowheight as needed to properly center the text within the cells
%\caption{An Example of a Table}
%\label{table_example}
%\centering
%% Some packages, such as MDW tools, offer better commands for making tables
%% than the plain LaTeX2e tabular which is used here.
%\begin{tabular}{|c||c|}
%\hline
%One & Two\\
%\hline
%Three & Four\\
%\hline
%\end{tabular}
%\end{table}
% Note that the IEEE does not put floats in the very first column
% - or typically anywhere on the first page for that matter. Also,
% in-text middle ("here") positioning is typically not used, but it
% is allowed and encouraged for Computer Society conferences (but
% not Computer Society journals). Most IEEE journals/conferences use
% top floats exclusively.
% Note that, LaTeX2e, unlike IEEE journals/conferences, places
% footnotes above bottom floats. This can be corrected via the
% \fnbelowfloat command of the stfloats package.
\section{ OBJETIVOS}
\begin{itemize}
\item Comprender el concepto de señal de reloj para sistemas síncronos.\\
\item Identificar el funcionamiento y utilidad del circuito
integrado NE555 o LM555.\\
\item Implementar y verificar en el laboratorio un
circuito contador binario de 4 bits.
\end{itemize}
% if have a single appendix:
%\appendix[Proof of the Zonklar Equations]
% or
%\appendix % for no appendix heading
% do not use \section anymore after \appendix, only \section*
% is possibly needed
% use appendices with more than one appendix
% then use \section to start each appendix
% you must declare a \section before using any
% \subsection or using \label (\appendices by itself
% starts a section numbered zero.)
%
\section{ MARCO TEÓRICO}
\subsection{Contador Binario:}
En electrónica digital, un contador es un circuito
secuencial construido a partir de flip-flops y compuertas
lógicas, capaz de realizar el cómputo de los impulsos
que recibe en la entrada destinada para tal efecto,
almacenar datos o actuar como divisor de frecuencia.
Habitualmente, el cómputo se realiza en código binario,
que con frecuencia será el binario natural o el BCD
natural.\\\\
Según la forma en que conmutan los flip-flops, podemos hablar de contadores síncronos (todos los flip--flops reciben en el mismo instante la señal de reloj) o asíncronos ( los flip-flops del contador no cambian de estado exactamente al mismo tiempo, dado que no comparten el mismo impulso de reloj).
\subsection{Contador Binario 74LS193:}
El CI 74LS193, mostrado en la figura 1, es un contador binario de 4 bits que puede contar en ambos 2 sentidos: ascendente y descendente. El sentido de conteo del circuito depende a la entrada donde se apliquen los pulsos: Up o Down.\\
\begin{figure}[htb]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{fig_1.jpg}
\caption{\ Símbolo del circuito integrado 74LS193
}
\end{figure}
Igualmente tiene una entrada asincronica CLR, la cual al activarse con un “1” borra al contador y una entrada asincronica LOAD la cual al activarse con un “0” almacena el numero presente en las entradas DCBA del contador.\\\\
Tiene dos salidas que sirven para conectar circuitos en cascada si se necesita implementar un contador de un mayor número de bits: la salida de acarreo (carry) para el conteo creciente y la salida de prestamo (borrow) para conteo decreciente. Estas señales se muestran en la figura 2. En la misma se puede observar que si el contador se encuentra contando en sentido ascendente, en el pulso 16 pasa a 0 (0000).\\
\begin{figure}[htb]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{figura_2.jpg}
\caption{\ Señales en el contador
}
\end{figure}
Sin embargo, la salida de acarreo se puede aplicar a la entrada Up de otro circuito haciendo que el mismo pase a 0001, y así tendríamos un contador de 8 bits con el número 00010000 es decir 16 en decimal.
\subsection{Multivibrador astable:}
En electrónica, un astable es un multivibrador que no tiene ningún estado estable, lo que significa que posee dos estados cuasi-estables entre los que conmuta, permaneciendo en cada uno de ellos un tiempo determinado. La frecuencia de conmutación depende, en general, de la carga y descarga de condensadores.\\\\
Entre sus múltiples aplicaciones se cuentan la generación de ondas periódicas (generador de reloj) y de trenes de impulsos.\\\\
El astable a usar tendrá la configuración mostrada en la Figura 3\\
\begin{figure}[htb]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{multivibrador_astable.jpg}
\caption{\ Multivibrador astable LM555
}
\end{figure}
\section{ MATERIALES}
\begin{itemize}
\item Cable para conexiones en la protoboard.
\item Circuitos integrados NE555 y 74LS193.
\item Un potenciometro de 1M $\Omega$.
\item Un capacitor de 1 $\mu$f.
\item Una resistencia de 22k $\Omega$.
\item Seis resistencias de 330 $\Omega$.
\item Seis resistencias de 1k $\Omega$.
\item Dos pulsadores.
\item Una protoboard.
\item Seis diodos Led.
\item Dip swicth Fuente DC de 5v.
\end{itemize}
\section{ PROCEDIMIENTO}
El circuito base para la práctica se muestra en la figura. El montaje de dicho circuito se presenta en la figura 4.\\
\begin{figure}[htb]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{montaje.jpg}
\caption{\ Montaje del cicuito base para práctica
}
\end{figure}
La etapa de visualización se realizó con diodos led conectados a las salidas del circuito integrado 74LS193 conservando el orden dado que estas salidas representan números, y el diodo derecho corresponde al bit menos significativo.
\section{ CUESTIONARIO}
\begin{itemize}
\item Explique qué utilidad tiene la carga inicial en el circuito integrado 74LS193.\\\\
El circuito integrado 74LS193 es un contador programable de 4 bits con carga de datos paralelo. Dispone de dos salidas de sobre pasamiento para contar en cascada, así como dos entradas de control para contar de manera ascendente o descendente.
Pin de carga: cuando se da un flanco ascendente, la señal de reloj y este pin tiene un nivel lógico bajo se realiza la carga del dato de preselección de las entradas A,B,C,D.\\\\
\item Defina “senal digital”.\\\\
La señal digital es generada por algún tipo de fenómeno electromagnético y en la cual sus signos representan ciertos valores discretos que contienen información codificada. Los sistemas que emplean señales digitales suelen emplear la lógica binaria . Una señal digital pierde poca calidad y puede reconstruirse y amplificarse en un proceso simultáneo. Estas señales, además, pueden procesarse de manera sencilla y son poco susceptibles al ruido ambiental.
Mientras que las señales analógicas son continuas, las señales digitales tienen la capacidad de pasar de un valor a otro sin atravesar los valores intermedios. Esto está vinculado a la lógica binaria mencionada anteriormente: cada señal digital sólo puede tomar dos estados, representados por unos y ceros.\\\\
\item Defina “conexion en cascada”. \\\\
Una conexión en cascada es aquella en la cual la salida de una etapa se conecta a la entrada de la segunda etapa y así sucesivamente. Dos redes de dos puertos están conectadas en cascada, si los terminales de salida de la primera red son los terminales de entrada de la segunda.\\\\
\item Simule un contador de 8 bits ascendente y descendente, usando conexiones en cascada.\\\\
La simulación de este circuito se presenta en el apéndice b. \\\\
\item Mencione aplicaciones de los contadores digitales.\\\\
Algunas aplicaciones de los contadores digitales son: \\
\begin{itemize}
\item Contar objetos y sucesos: es preciso que el fenómeno a contabilizar sea convertido a señal eléctrica empleando, por ejemplo, sensores.
\item Tomar medidas de tiempo: por ejemplo en los relojes digitales
\item Medir frecuencias: por ejemplo midiendo y controlando la velocidad de un motor.
\item Dividir frecuencias y ampliar periodos de tiempo
\item Repartir tiempos (multiplexado temporal).
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\section{ CONCLUSIONES}
Gracias a la implementación de circuitos contadores se pueden controlar procesos en diferentes dispositivos donde se necesite una etapa de conteo, tambien se puede condicionar el conteo de dichos dispositivos al poder caragar datos en el contador.\\
En los sistemas síncronos los tiempos exactos en que alguna salida puede cambiar de estado se determinan por medio de una señal denominada reloj o clock.Las salidas cambian en los flancos de subida o bajada del pulso de reloj.\\
Al momento de realizar el montaje es importante revisar continuidad en cada conexión que se realice.
% you can choose not to have a title for an appendix
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\section{ REFERENCIAS}
\begin{itemize}
\item www.meteo.ieec.uned.es
\item Definición de señal digital - Qué es, Significado y Concepto http://definicion.de/senal-digital/ixzz3mLID381n
\item http://www.virtual.unal.edu.co/cursos/sedes/manizales/
4040015/lecciones/Capitulo1/cascada.html
\item http://diec.cps.unizar.es/~tpollan/libro/Apuntes/dig17.pdf
\end{itemize}
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